Table 2 Multi-variable multilevel logistic regression analysis of individual and community level determinants of IDD among reproductive age in LMCs; (N = 335,565)

Women’s age in years

15–24

0.85 (0.82, 0.87)

1.48 (1.42, 1.54)

25–34

0.86 (0.84, 0.89)

1.19 (1.15, 1.23)

34–49

Ref

Ref

Highest educational level

No education

11.24 (10.61, 11.91)

2.92 (2.72, 3.13)

Primary

7.37 (6.96, 7.81)

2.35 (2.20, 2.52)

Secondary

3.42 (3.23, 3.62)

1.76 (1.65, 1.88)

Higher

Ref.

Ref.

Marital status

Currently in union

Ref.

Ref.

Never in union

0.52 (0.49, 0.55)

1.08 (1.01, 1.16)

Formerly in union

1.05 (1.01, 1.10)

1.12 (1.06, 1.18)

HH Wealth status

Poorest

8.82 (8.45,9.22)

3.46 (3.28, 3.66)

Poorer

5.60 (5.35, 5.8)

2.56 (2.43, 2.70)

Middle

3.88 (3.71,4.05)

2.09 (1.20, 2.20)

Richer

2.37 (2.26, 2.48)

1.61 (1.53, 1.69)

Richest

Ref.

Ref.

Sex of household head

Male

1.14 (1.11, 1.17)

1.20 (1.16, 1.24)

Female

Ref

Ref

Total children ever born

Uni-para

0.32 (0.31, 0.33)

0.39(0.37, 0.41)

Multi-para

0.57 (0.56, 0.59)

0.70 (0.68, 0.72)

Grand-para

Ref.

Ref.

Health insurance covered

Yes

Ref.

Ref.

No

2.74 (2.64, 2.84)

1.89 (1.82, 1.97)

Had media exposure

Yes

Ref.

Ref.

No

2.54 (2.48, 2.59)

1.27 (1.23, 1.30)

Pregnancy was wanted

Then

Ref.

Ref.

Later

0.83 (0.80, 0.85)

0.83 (0.80, 0.86)

No more

1.25 (1.20, 1.30)

0.95 (0.91, 0.99)

Number of ANC visit

1–3

2.33 (2.28, 2.38)

1.73 (1.69, 1.77)

4 and above

Ref.

Ref.

Place of residence

Urban

Ref.

Ref.

Rural

3.39 (3.30, 3.48)

1.50 (1.43, 1.54)

Distance to health facility

No problem

Ref.

Ref.

Big problem

1.97 (1.93, 2.01)

1.28 (1.25, 1.31)

Region

Sub-Saharan Africa

1.01 (0.98, 1.04)

0.95 (0.90, 0.98)

South and Eastern Europe and the Caribbean

1.55 (1.50, 1.61)

6.67 (6.20, 7.18)

Central/western Asia and the Oceania

0.45 (0.43, 0.47)

0.80 (0.74, 0.85)

South and Southeast Asia

Ref.

Ref.

Countries income status

Low income

1.74 (1.68, 1.80)

7.05 (6.57, 7.56)

Lower-middle income

1.32 (1.27, 1.37)

5.34 (4.93, 5.78)

Upper-middle income

Ref.

Ref.