Table 5 Multi-level analysis of factors associated with open defecation practice among households in SSA from 2010 to 2020 DHS

Age of household head (years)

11–25

1.00

–

1.00

26–40

0.84 [0.81, 0.86]

–

0.97 [0.94, 1.00]

41–55

0.72 [0.70, 0.74]**

–

0.73 [0.71, 0.75]*

 > 56

0.60 [0.59, 0.62]**

–

0.65 [0.63, 0.67]**

Sex of household head

Male

1.00

–

1.00

Female

0.77 [0.75, 0.78]

–

0.99 [0.97, 101]

Educational attainment of household head

No education

1.00

–

1.00

Primary education

0.38 [0.37, 0.39]**

–

0.67[0.66, 0.69]**

Secondary and above

0.29 [0.29, 0.30]**

–

0.43 [0.42, 0.44]**

Media exposure

No

1.00

–

1.00

Yes

0.86 [0.85, 0.87]**

–

0.70 [0.69, 0.71]**

Wealth index

Poor

1.00

–

1.00

Middle

0.47 [0.45, 0.47]*

–

0.43 [0.42, 0.44]***

Rich

0.13 [0.12, 0.13]***

–

0.14 [0.13, 0.14]***

Access to drinking water

Basic

1.00

–

1.00

Limited

1.78[1.75, 1.81]*

–

1.46 [1.44, 1.49]*

Community-level variables

Residence

Urban

–

1.00

1.00

Rural

–

9.36 [9.15, 9.58]**

2.75 [2.68, 2.83]*

Region in SSA

Central Africa

–

1.00

1.00

East Africa

–

0.41 [0.39, 0.42]*

0.48 [0.46, 0.49]*

West Africa

–

2.23 [2.17, 2.29]**

2.72 [2.64, 2.80]**

Southern Africa

0.99 [0.96, 1.02]

1.33 [1.27, 1.38]***

Country income level

Lower-income

–

1.00

1.00

Lower middle

–

0.42 [0.41, 0.43]***

0.34 [0.33, 0.35]**

Upper middle

0.60 [0.54, 0.66]

0.28 [0.22, 0.33]**

Survey year

2010–2014

–

1.00

1.00

2015–2020

–

0.38 [0.37, 0.38]***

0.32 [0.31, 0.32]*

Random effects

VA

1.85

1.76

1.82

1.75

ICC

0.36

0.35

0.36

0.34

MOR

3.64

3.53

3.60

3.49

PCV

Reff

0.048

0.016

0.054

Model comparison

Loglikelyhood ratio

− 231,079

− 188,299

− 178,129

− 157,098

Deviance

4,621

3,765

3,562

3,141

Mean VIF

–

1.34

1.82

1.78