People without accommodation | People living in temporary or crisis accommodation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Free- or low-cost accommodation and public assistance facilities | Self-reliance support centers | Internet café or comic book café | ||
Characteristics and vulnerabilities | • A total of 4253 in Japan, and 1037 people in Tokyo alone, the majority of whom are males aged over 60 [10, 23]. • Night-time count of homeless people by NGO indicated an actual number that is 2.8 times higher than that produced by a public survey in Tokyo [24]. • High prevalence of mental illness, intellectual disability, and chronic diseases, such as hypertension, diabetes, and alcoholism [19, 23, 25]. • Threatened by natural disasters, eviction requests, and raids [26, 27]. | • Free- or low-cost accommodations shelter 15,600 people in Japan [28] and 4069 people in Tokyo alone, out of which 3779 are recipients of public assistance [26]. • Public assistance facilities accommodate 35,918 people [29]. • Congregated dwelling environment [28]. • TB infection clusters reported [30]. | • Utilized by a total of 16,641 people in Japan in 2019 [21]. • Capacity for accommodation is 350 people in Tokyo [31]. • Tenancy terminates in 6 months [31]. • Inmates are required to follow rules, such as alcohol ban and curfews, which drives them to escape [32]. | • The number of people that utilize such cafes is 5000 for Japan (2007) and 5055 for Tokyo (2016). The majority are males aged between 30 and 59 years [33]. • Frequent visitors are mainly non-regular workers without employment or health insurance. Oftentimes, many sleep on the streets [34]. • Despite its availability, the existing social welfare is not utilized [34]. • TB infection clusters reported [34]. |
Socio-economic consequences of COVID-19 | • Loss of income [35]. • Soup kitchen services are on hold [36]. • Increase in number of people on the streets [37]. | • Those who are not welfare recipients lose job income [38]. | • Difficulty of finding a job during the 6-month tenancy period [32]. | • Loss of income [39]. • Suspension of internet cafés, which deprives accommodation [40]. |
Risks of COVID-19 infections and progression | • Aging and chronic diseases [23]. • Difficulty performing hand hygiene practices [37]. • Delay in access to medical services [23]. | • Sharing a small room with several people [28]. | • Sharing a room and amenities, no rooms are individually available, particularly in Tokyo [31]. | • Sharing a big space and amenities [36]. • 61.2% of them are without health insurance [33]. • Delay in access to medical services [23]. |
Existing measures most relevant to vulnerabilities | • Public Assistance System for Guaranteeing Minimum Standard of Living [41]. • Self-reliance Support for Needy Persons [42]. | • Public Assistance System for Guaranteeing Minimum Standard of Living [41]. | • Self-reliance Support for Needy Persons [42]. | • Self-reliance Support for Needy Persons [42]. • Tokyo Challenge Net [43]. |
Urgent measures for COVID-19 consequences and risks | • MHLW circular on streamlining approval procedures of public assistance [44]. • MHLW circular on single rooms for the newly needy [45]. | • Infection control manuals [46]. | • Infection control manuals [47]. | • MHLW circular on streamlining approval procedures of public assistance [44]. • MHLW circular on single rooms for the newly needy [45]. |
Remaining challenges for COVID-19 consequences and risks | • Low utilization (20%) of the Public Assistance System due to tedious local government procedures and stigma against the system [48]. • Implement single room arrangement. • Access to medical services. | • Despite infection control practices, multiple inmates continue to share rooms [46]. | • Despite infection control practices, multiple inmates continue to share rooms [47]. | • Low utilization (20%) of the Public Assistance System due to tedious local government procedures and stigma against the system [48]. • Implement single room arrangement. • Access to medical services. |