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Table 1 People without accommodation and people living in temporary or crisis accommodation

From: “Staying at home” to tackle COVID-19 pandemic: rhetoric or reality? Cross-cutting analysis of nine population groups vulnerable to homelessness in Japan

 

People without accommodation

People living in temporary or crisis accommodation

Free- or low-cost accommodation and public assistance facilities

Self-reliance support centers

Internet café or comic book café

Characteristics and vulnerabilities

• A total of 4253 in Japan, and 1037 people in Tokyo alone, the majority of whom are males aged over 60 [10, 23].

• Night-time count of homeless people by NGO indicated an actual number that is 2.8 times higher than that produced by a public survey in Tokyo [24].

• High prevalence of mental illness, intellectual disability, and chronic diseases, such as hypertension, diabetes, and alcoholism [19, 23, 25].

• Threatened by natural disasters, eviction requests, and raids [26, 27].

• Free- or low-cost accommodations shelter 15,600 people in Japan [28] and 4069 people in Tokyo alone, out of which 3779 are recipients of public assistance [26].

• Public assistance facilities accommodate 35,918 people [29].

• Congregated dwelling environment [28].

• TB infection clusters reported [30].

• Utilized by a total of 16,641 people in Japan in 2019 [21].

• Capacity for accommodation is 350 people in Tokyo [31].

• Tenancy terminates in 6 months [31].

• Inmates are required to follow rules, such as alcohol ban and curfews, which drives them to escape [32].

• The number of people that utilize such cafes is 5000 for Japan (2007) and 5055 for Tokyo (2016). The majority are males aged between 30 and 59 years [33].

• Frequent visitors are mainly non-regular workers without employment or health insurance. Oftentimes, many sleep on the streets [34].

• Despite its availability, the existing social welfare is not utilized [34].

• TB infection clusters reported [34].

Socio-economic consequences of COVID-19

• Loss of income [35].

• Soup kitchen services are on hold [36].

• Increase in number of people on the streets [37].

• Those who are not welfare recipients lose job income [38].

• Difficulty of finding a job during the 6-month tenancy period [32].

• Loss of income [39].

• Suspension of internet cafés, which deprives accommodation [40].

Risks of COVID-19 infections and progression

• Aging and chronic diseases [23].

• Difficulty performing hand hygiene practices [37].

• Delay in access to medical services [23].

• Sharing a small room with several people [28].

• Sharing a room and amenities, no rooms are individually available, particularly in Tokyo [31].

• Sharing a big space and amenities [36].

• 61.2% of them are without health insurance [33].

• Delay in access to medical services [23].

Existing measures most relevant to vulnerabilities

• Public Assistance System for Guaranteeing Minimum Standard of Living [41].

• Self-reliance Support for Needy Persons [42].

• Public Assistance System for Guaranteeing Minimum Standard of Living [41].

• Self-reliance Support for Needy Persons [42].

• Self-reliance Support for Needy Persons [42].

• Tokyo Challenge Net [43].

Urgent measures for COVID-19 consequences and risks

• MHLW circular on streamlining approval procedures of public assistance [44].

• MHLW circular on single rooms for the newly needy [45].

• Infection control manuals [46].

• Infection control manuals [47].

• MHLW circular on streamlining approval procedures of public assistance [44].

• MHLW circular on single rooms for the newly needy [45].

Remaining challenges for COVID-19 consequences and risks

• Low utilization (20%) of the Public Assistance System due to tedious local government procedures and stigma against the system [48].

• Implement single room arrangement.

• Access to medical services.

• Despite infection control practices, multiple inmates continue to share rooms [46].

• Despite infection control practices, multiple inmates continue to share rooms [47].

• Low utilization (20%) of the Public Assistance System due to tedious local government procedures and stigma against the system [48].

• Implement single room arrangement.

• Access to medical services.