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Table 3 Antivenin activities of some plants used for snakebite treatment in Uganda as per global reports

From: Antivenin plants used for treatment of snakebites in Uganda: ethnobotanical reports and pharmacological evidences

Plant

Part used

Solvent used

Antivenin activity (comments)

Active chemical constituents

Authors

Allium cepa L.

Bulb

Methanol

Cardioprotective activity (14.8 ± 1.65 units/l; p > 0.5) on creatine kinase isoenzyme levels to neutralize snake venoms. Concentrations (< 160 μg/ml) stabilized human red blood corpuscles membrane (antihemolytic) against N. naja karachiensis venom, though elevated concentrations were cytotoxic. Provided 50% protection from N. naja karachiensis phospholipase A (PLA2) in terms of an increase in pH of an egg yolk suspension. Neutralized the anticoagulant effect induced by weak PLA2 enzymes in N. naja karachiensis venom (76% inhibition, coagulation time of 106 ± 0.57 s). Quercetin is a potent inhibitor of lipoxygenase

Quercitin, sulfurous volatile oils, oleanolic acid, protocatechuric acid

[123,124,125,126,127]

Allium sativum L.

Bulb

Methanol

Hepatoprotective activity (p > 0.5, 49 ± 5.01 and 82.5 ± 18.55 units/l of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase against 52.5 ± 3.51 and 69.5 ± 18.55 units/l for standard antiserum) assessed in rabbits. Provided 50% protection from N. naja karachiensis PLA2 in terms of an increase in pH of an egg yolk suspension. Provided 50% protection from N. naja karachiensis PLA2 in terms of an increase in pH of an egg yolk suspension. Neutralized the anticoagulant effect induced by weak phospholipase A enzymes in N. naja karachiensis venom (40% inhibition, coagulation time of 115 ± 1.52 s).

Quercetin, scordinines A, B allicin, thiosulfinates, 2 mercapto-L-cysteines, anthocyanins, alliinase, polysaccharides, sativin I, sativin II, glycosides of kaempferol

[123, 125, 126]

Asystasia spp (A. gangetica L)

Leaves

Methanol

1000 mg/kg provided 80% protection against N. melanoleuca venom (PLA2)

Flavonoids, saponins and tannins

[128]

Aristolochia spp (A. indica, A. odoratissima)

Leaves

Methanol, Ethanol, Water, pentane

PLA2 and hyaluronidase enzymes from N. naja and V. russelli venoms inhibited. Strong gelatinolytic, collagenase, peroxidase, and nuclease activities, l-amino acid oxidase and protease inhibitory potencies. Protected mice against lethal effects of Bothrops atrox venom at higher doses of 8 and 16 mg/kg

Aristolochic acid I, lignan (-)-cubebin

[129,130,131]

Basella alba L.

Fruit

Methanol

Radical scavenging activity against 1,1-diphenyl 2-picrylhydroxyl (DHPP) experimented in mice.

Flavonoids, phenolics, betacyanins, Lupeol, β sitosterol

[132,133,134]

Capparis tomentosa Lam.

Root

Water, petroleum ether

The antioxidant activity by DPPH was 35.50 ± 0.02%, by phosphomolybdate assay was 41.22 ± 0.17 mg/kg ascorbic acid equivalent, and the reducing power increased with increase in concentration up to a maximum at 800 μg/ml in alloxanized male mice (aqueous extracts).

N-benzoylphenylalanylaninol acetate, 24-ethylcholestan-5-en-3-ol, L-stachydrine, 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-4-methoxyoxindole

[135, 136]

Carica papaya L.

Leaves

Water, ethanol

Hepatoprotective against carbon tetrachloride induced hepatotoxicity in mice.

Saponins, cardiac glycosides, alkaloids, phenolic acids, chlorogenic acid, flavonoids and coumarin compounds

[137,138,139,140]

Carissa spp (C. spinarum L.)

Leaves

Methanol

Acetylcholinesterase, PLA2, hyaluronidase, phosphomonoesterase, phosphodiesterase,5-nucleotidase enzymes from Bungarus caeruleus and V. russelli venoms inhibited by 100 μg/ml of the extract.

Steroids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, alkaloids, ursolic acid

[141, 142]

Cassia occidentalis L.

Leaves, roots

Ethanol

Stimulated angiogenesis, inhibited epidermal hyperplasia, and minimized local effects caused by Bootrops moojeni venom.

Anthraquinones

[143, 144]

Citrus spp.

(C. limon L. Burm. F)

Root, ripe fruits

Methanol

Neutralized the anticoagulant effect induced by weak PLA2 enzymes in N. naja karachiensis venom (64% inhibition, coagulation time of 109 ± 1.00 s). In vitro inhibitory ability against the lethal effect of Lachesis muta venom with effective dose 50% of 710 μg extract per mouse

d-x-pinene camphene, d-limonene, linalool, ichangin 4-β-glucopyranoside, nomilinic acid, 4-β-glucopyranoside

[126, 145, 146]

Cleome spp (C. viscosa)

Bulb

Methanol, ethyl acetate

Significant anti-inflammatory activity against carageenin-, histamine-, dextran-induced rat paw edema compared to Diclofenac sodium (20 mg/kg) standard

Flavonoid glycosides, querection 3-0-(2″-acetyl)-glucoside, phenolics

[147, 148]

Crinum spp

(C. jagus)

Bulb

Methanol

Extract of 1000 mg/kg protected 50% of mice; injection of a pre-incubated mixture of the same extract dose and venom gave 100% protection against E. ocellatus venom (10 mg/kg). Administration of extract at 250 mg/kg, 30 min before the injection of E. ocellatus venom (10 mg/kg) prolonged (p < 0.05) death time of poisoned mice. Extract of 500 mg/kg provided 50% protection against Betans venom (9.5 mg/kg) while pre-incubation of a mixture of the same dose of venom and extract prior to injection provided 33.3% protection. Plasma creatine kinase concentrations in poisoned mice reduced with injection 1000 mg/kg of extract pre-incubated with 5 mg/kg of E. ocellatus or 7 mg/kg B. arietans venoms. The extract blocked hemorrhagic activity of a standard hemorrhagic dose (2.8 mg/ml) of E. ocellatus venom at 1.7, 3.3, and 6.7 mg/ml.

Phenolic compounds, tannins, alkaloids, cardiac glycosides

[148, 149]

Indigofera spp.

(I. capitata Kotschy, I.

conferta Gillett)

Leaves

Methanol, ethanol, water

Extracts reduced bleeding and clotting times of N. nigricollis envenomed rats. Ethanol and aqueous extracts of I. capitata were more effective at dose of 300 mg/kg with lowest clotting time of 174 ± 3.67 s and 1000 mg/kg with lowest bleeding time of 228 ± 3.00 s. I. conferta at a dose of 1000 mg/kg had the lowest clotting time of 173 ± 5.61 s (ethanol extract) and 234 ± 7.64 s for aqueous extract). Edema forming activity was inhibited by ethanol and aqueous extracts, effective at higher doses of 300 mg/kg (ethanol extract) and 1000 mg/kg (aqueous extract) with the lowest edema forming activity of 108.80 ± 1.90 and 102.00 ± 1.90 (%mm) respectively by I. capitata and at dose of 250 mg/kg, 500 mg/kg, and 1000 mg/kg of aqueous extract with the lowest edema forming activities of 100.8 ± 1.89, 100.20 ± 1.90 and 100.60 ± 1.90 (%mm) by I. conferta

Flavonoids, phenolic compounds, steroids, triterpenes, anthraquinone, alkaloids

[150]

(I. pulchra Willd.)

Methanol

 

Extract inhibited anticoagulant, hemolytic and PLA2 activities of N. nigricollis venom

Tannins, flavonoids, saponins, and steroids

[148, 151]

Jatropa carcus L.

Leaf latex

Methanol

Inhibits hemolytic activity of PLA2 from N. naja venom

Terpenoids, alkaloids, phenolics, flavonoids, saponins

[152]

Vernonia cinerea (L) Less.

Whole plant

Methanol

Antioxidant activity by DPPH free radical scavenging assay. Ethyl acetate fraction exhibited 63.3% DPPH radical scavenging activity at 100 μg/ml.

Phenolics, flavonoids

[153]

Sansevieria spp

(S. liberica ger. and labr)

Rhizome, root

Methanol

LD50 of 353.5 ug/kg. The extract, n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and butanol fractions significantly protected mice from N. naja nigricollis venom-induced mortality

Terpenoids, flavonoids, saponins

[154]

Albizia spp (A. lebbeck L. (Benth) bark)

Root/bark

Water

1000 mg/kg, N. kauothia venom, provided 50% protection from N. naja karachiensis PLA2 in terms of an increase in pH of an egg yolk suspension

Carbohydrates, proteins, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, echinocystic acid, amino acids

[109, 123, 125, 154]

Euphorbia species (E. hirta)

Whole plant

Methanol

LD50 not specified, against N. naja) venom

Quercetin-3-O-alpha-rhamnoside, terpenoids, alkaloids, steroids, tannins, flavonoids, phenolic compounds

[155, 156]

Bidens pilosa L.

Leaves, whole part

water, hexane

Effective against Dendroaspis jamesoni and Echis ocellatus venom

Linalool, Cadinene, 훽-Caryophyllene, 훽-Cubebene, Cedrene, Humulene, Selina-3,7(11)-diene, Thujopsene, (−)-Globulol, Elixene, 2-Hexen-1-ol, 2-Hexenal

[157, 158]

Hoslundia opposita Vahl

Root, leaves

Methanol, Water

DPPH radical scavenging activity of 32.3 ± 1.9 μg/ml compared to standard l-ascorbic acid with the activity of 21.1 ± 1.1 μg/ml.

훼-Cadinol Ethyl linolenate, Palmitic acid

[158, 159]

Maytensus senegalensis

Root

Methanol, chloroform

Anti-inflammatory activity inhibited ear edema induced by croton oil in mice

Maytenoic acid, lupenone, β−amyrin

[160]

Securinega virosa

Leaves

Hexane, ethyl acetate, methanol

N-hexane extract provided protection against lethal dose of Naja nigricollis venom (significant at 20 mg/kg, p < 0.05)

Alkaloids, phenols, saponins and triterpenes/steroids

[161, 162]

Solanum incanum L.

Root

Water

Inhibited the response to acetylcholine in a concentration-dependent manner like atropine. The extract inhibited charcoal travel in mice intestine by 36.28, 51.45, 52.93, and 38.53% in doses of 50, 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg body weight respectively

Quercetin, Isoquercitrin, Kaempferol, β-Sitosterol, Luteolin 7-O-b-D-glucopyranoside, sodium, potassium, chromium, vitamins B and C

[162,163,164,165]